Eased childhood inhibition and increased internalizing symptoms in adulthood in inhibited subjects. These differences were limited to the angry trials, suggesting a role of emotion in moderating the relationship between temperament and functional connectivity. Clauss and colleagues (2014a) tested for temperament differences in functional connectivity during a task–anticipation of viewing fear faces–in young adults. Inhibited subjects had more negative connectivity in three different circuits during anticipation of viewing fear faces: order LY317615 amygdala and rostral ACC; insula and rostral and dorsal ACC; and insula and dlPFC. In addition to the between group differences, positive connectivity between the rACC and amygdala correlated with both lower social anxiety and higher emotion regulation. Both the insula and rACC are structurally connected to the amygdala, send inputs to the amygdala, and modulate outputs of the amygdala (Carmichael and Price, 1995; Ghashghaei et al., 2007; Mufson et al., 1981). Thus, increased connectivity between the rACC and emotional brain regions, such as the insula and amygdala, likely contribute to resilience against developing social anxiety disorder.Prog Neurobiol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 April 01.Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptClauss et al.PageThese three connectivity studies show that inhibited purchase Abamectin B1a individuals have alterations in amygdala-prefrontal connectivity and amygdala-insula connectivity. One critical challenge in the interpretation of connectivity studies is to understand what “negative connectivity” represents: Does it reflect lower or reduced levels of excitatory connectivity or higher levels of inhibitory connectivity? Further research using animal models is needed to answer this question. We can, however, infer that prefrontal cortex modulation of amygdala activity impacts development of anxiety symptoms in inhibited individuals. 2.1.6. Summary of Human Studies of Brain Function–Studies of brain function in inhibited temperament have consistently pointed to alterations in amygdala, with a faster latency, longer duration, higher magnitude, and habituation failure observed in inhibited individuals. Additional findings include elevated responses in the hippocampus, basal ganglia and cerebellum, combined with decreased PFC regulatory control over the amygdala. Together, these findings suggest alterations in a critical limbic-prefrontal-basal ganglia circuit broadly responsible for novelty detection, emotion regulation, and attention, which may govern decision making and behavior through complex inter-regional feedback. Limitations of the previous functional studies included small sample sizes and region of interest approaches; larger studies including whole brain analyses are needed to determine whether other brain regions are involved. 2.2. Meta-Analysis of fMRI Studies of Inhibited Temperament The findings reviewed above include studies from multiple laboratories using different fMRI tasks and different methods for measuring inhibited temperament. While many studies have found consistent patterns in brain activity in inhibited temperament, differences in methodology make direct comparisons between findings difficult. Meta-analysis provides a method for combining these studies to identify regions commonly activated. Here, we conduct the first meta-analysis of fMRI studies of inhibited temperament in humans. Studies were selected by searching Web of Kn.Eased childhood inhibition and increased internalizing symptoms in adulthood in inhibited subjects. These differences were limited to the angry trials, suggesting a role of emotion in moderating the relationship between temperament and functional connectivity. Clauss and colleagues (2014a) tested for temperament differences in functional connectivity during a task–anticipation of viewing fear faces–in young adults. Inhibited subjects had more negative connectivity in three different circuits during anticipation of viewing fear faces: amygdala and rostral ACC; insula and rostral and dorsal ACC; and insula and dlPFC. In addition to the between group differences, positive connectivity between the rACC and amygdala correlated with both lower social anxiety and higher emotion regulation. Both the insula and rACC are structurally connected to the amygdala, send inputs to the amygdala, and modulate outputs of the amygdala (Carmichael and Price, 1995; Ghashghaei et al., 2007; Mufson et al., 1981). Thus, increased connectivity between the rACC and emotional brain regions, such as the insula and amygdala, likely contribute to resilience against developing social anxiety disorder.Prog Neurobiol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 April 01.Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptClauss et al.PageThese three connectivity studies show that inhibited individuals have alterations in amygdala-prefrontal connectivity and amygdala-insula connectivity. One critical challenge in the interpretation of connectivity studies is to understand what “negative connectivity” represents: Does it reflect lower or reduced levels of excitatory connectivity or higher levels of inhibitory connectivity? Further research using animal models is needed to answer this question. We can, however, infer that prefrontal cortex modulation of amygdala activity impacts development of anxiety symptoms in inhibited individuals. 2.1.6. Summary of Human Studies of Brain Function–Studies of brain function in inhibited temperament have consistently pointed to alterations in amygdala, with a faster latency, longer duration, higher magnitude, and habituation failure observed in inhibited individuals. Additional findings include elevated responses in the hippocampus, basal ganglia and cerebellum, combined with decreased PFC regulatory control over the amygdala. Together, these findings suggest alterations in a critical limbic-prefrontal-basal ganglia circuit broadly responsible for novelty detection, emotion regulation, and attention, which may govern decision making and behavior through complex inter-regional feedback. Limitations of the previous functional studies included small sample sizes and region of interest approaches; larger studies including whole brain analyses are needed to determine whether other brain regions are involved. 2.2. Meta-Analysis of fMRI Studies of Inhibited Temperament The findings reviewed above include studies from multiple laboratories using different fMRI tasks and different methods for measuring inhibited temperament. While many studies have found consistent patterns in brain activity in inhibited temperament, differences in methodology make direct comparisons between findings difficult. Meta-analysis provides a method for combining these studies to identify regions commonly activated. Here, we conduct the first meta-analysis of fMRI studies of inhibited temperament in humans. Studies were selected by searching Web of Kn.